“Madder is the most widespread natural source of reds, but it is not the only one. Perhaps the most unexpected rivals throughout history have been bugs.

The best known is cochineal, a scale insect that lives on certain species of cacti in Central and South America. Native inhabitants as far back as 1000 B.C. knew how to extract bluish red dye from the dried remains of the female cochineal, collected when she was swollen with eggs. Spanish traders in the 1500s introduced the so-called scarlet grain to Europe. Some cacti were transplanted to places such as the Canary Islands and Java. Cochineal is still widely used as a food coloring.

Another red dye comes from an insect that infests oak trees and other plants in southern Europe and the Middle East. The scarlet obtained from the dried shells of the female shield louse was used by dyers in ancient Rome. Cochineal almost completely eneded the dyers interest in these insects in the 1600s.

A red also can be obtained from the bodies of the gum-lac scale insects from China, south Asia, and parts of Africa. The same bug is also a sourceof the resin used in shellac.

Red purple dyestuffs with unreliable staying power include red ocher from soil rich in iron oxide; henna; the purple lichen archil; and Brazilwood trees.

There are hundreds of natural sources for other colors with varying degrees of fastness and durability. Some of those used in carpet production include:

Yellow: weld, pomegranate, chamomile, onion skin

Blue: indigo

Brown: walnut

Black: acorn cups, oak bark

Primary colors are mixed to create greens, oranges, and other shades.”

—Brian Murphy, from The Root of Wild Madder: Chasing the History, Mystery, and Lore of the Persian Carpet, 2005.